Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the Christian philosophers Augustine of Hippo; Boethius; Anselm; Gilbert of Poitiers; Peter Abelard; Roger Bacon; Bonaventure; Thomas Aquinas; Duns Scotus; William of Ockham and Jean Buridan.

The Jewish philosophers include Maimonides and Gersonides; and the Muslim philosophers Alkindus; Alfarabi; Alhazen; Avicenna; Algazel; Avempace; Abubacer; Ibn Khaldun; and Averroes.

Some authorities suggest that one of the figures in this miniature represents Al-Kindi; or Abu Yusuf Ya?qub ibn Ishaq as-?abba? al-Kindi (c. 801-873 CE); known as 'the Philosopher of the Arabs'; a Muslim Arab philosopher; polymath; mathematician; physician and musician. Al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim peripatetic philosophers; and is unanimously hailed as the 'father of Islamic or Arabic philosophy' for his synthesis; adaptation and promotion of Greek and Hellenistic philosophy in the Muslim world.