Abu l-Walid Mu?ammad bin ?A?mad bin Ru拧d (Arabic: ??? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????); better known as Ibn Rushd (Arabic: ??? ????); and in European literature as Averroes (play /?'v?ro?.i?z/; 1126 - December 10; 1198); was a Muslim polymath; a master of Aristotelian philosophy; Islamic philosophy; Islamic theology; Maliki law and jurisprudence; logic; psychology; politics; Arabic music theory; and the sciences of medicine; astronomy; geography; mathematics; physics and celestial mechanics.

He was born in C贸rdoba; Al Andalus; modern-day Spain; and died in Marrakesh; Morocco. His school of philosophy is known as Averroism.

Porphyry of Tyre Ancient Greek: ???f?????; Porphyrios; AD 234-c. 305) was a Neoplatonic philosopher who was born in Tyre. He edited and published the Enneads; the only collection of the work of his teacher Plotinus. He also wrote many works himself on a wide variety of topics. His Isagoge; or Introduction; is an introduction to logic and philosophy; and in Latin translation it was the standard textbook on logic throughout the Middle Ages. In addition; through several of his works; most notably Philosophy from Oracles and Against the Christians; he was involved in a controversy with a number of early Christians; and his commentary on Euclid's Elements was used as a source by Pappus of Alexandria.