Illustration showing the organic, inorganic and hybrid nanoparticles that can be used to bypass the antibiotic-resistant mechanisms of bacteria (red, centre). Nanomaterials can be used to encapsulate therapeutic agents. They can also be engineered to enter bacterial cells through membrane fusion. Catalytic nanomaterials can increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and causes oxidative cellular stress. Some nanomaterials can bind to various intracellular components, such as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), ribosomes, etc and disrupt their functions. The bacteria membrane can also be damaged by nanomaterials due to their electrostatic interactions with the bacterial surface.